How to Read Elder Futhark Runes
A practical guide to the Elder Futhark rune row, the names of the runes, their phonetic values, and their symbolic meanings in Norse tradition.
The Elder Futhark is the oldest form of the runic alphabets used by the Germanic peoples of Northern Europe, with 24 signs arranged in a fixed order and divided into three groups of eight, called ættir (families or generations). The name “Futhark” comes from the sounds of the first six runes: f, u, þ, a, r, k. The Elder Futhark was used from roughly 150 to 800 CE, and the surviving inscriptions are the principal source of information about the rune-row. Reading the Elder Futhark is, in part, a matter of learning the names of the runes, the order of the rune-row, and the symbolic meanings that the runes acquired in the medieval Norse tradition.
The Rune-Row
The Elder Futhark consists of 24 runes, divided into three groups of eight. The first group is the Freya’s ætt (or the ætt of the gods of the sky), the second is Hagal’s ætt (or the ætt of the gods of the storm), and the third is Tyr’s ætt (or the ætt of the gods of the underworld). The three ættir are named for the rune that begins each group: Fehu, Hagalaz, and Tiwaz.
The rune-row is as follows:
Freya’s ætt (the first ætt):
- Fehu (f): the rune of cattle, wealth, and material prosperity
- Uruz (u): the rune of the aurochs, primal strength, and untamed force
- Thurisaz (þ): the rune of the thorn, the giants, and the hammer of Thor
- Ansuz (a): the rune of the god Odin, divine inspiration, and ancestral wisdom
- Raidho (r): the rune of the ride, the journey, and the chariot
- Kenaz (k): the rune of the torch, the beacon, and the knowledge
- Gebo (g): the rune of the gift, the offering, and the partnership
- Wunjo (w): the rune of joy, the harmony, and the glory
Hagal’s ætt (the second ætt):
- Hagalaz (h): the rune of hail, the disruptive, and the cycle of life
- Nauthiz (n): the rune of need, the necessity, and the constraint
- Isa (i): the rune of ice, the stillness, and the concentration
- Jera (j): the rune of the year, the harvest, and the cycle
- Eihwaz (ï): the rune of the yew, the bow, and the death and rebirth
- Perthro (p): the rune of fate, the lot, and the mystery
- Algiz (z): the rune of protection, the elk, and the divine shield
- Sowilo (s): the rune of the sun, the victory, and the divine force
Tyr’s ætt (the third ætt):
- Tiwaz (t): the rune of Tyr, the warrior, and the justice
- Berkano (b): the rune of the birch, the mother, and the birth
- Ehwaz (e): the rune of the horse, the partnership, and the motion
- Mannaz (m): the rune of the man, the human, and the intelligence
- Laguz (l): the rune of the water, the flow, and the dream
- Ingwaz (ŋ): the rune of the fertility god Ing, the seed, and the gestation
- Dagaz (d): the rune of the day, the dawn, and the breakthrough
- Othala (o): the rune of the inheritance, the home, and the ancestral land
The order of the runes is the same in all surviving Elder Futhark inscriptions, and the order matches the medieval Scandinavian sources, including the Hávamál of the Poetic Edda and the Skáldskaparmál of the Prose Edda.
The Names of the Runes
Each rune has a name, and the names are known from a small number of medieval Scandinavian sources. The most important sources are the Anglo-Saxon Rune Poem (c. 8th–9th century), the Norwegian Rune Poem (c. 13th century), the Icelandic Rune Poem (c. 15th century), and the Abecedarium Nordmandicum (a medieval Scandinavian list of rune names). The four sources agree in many respects, but they differ in details, and the exact pronunciation of the rune-names is, in some cases, uncertain.
The names of the runes are, in many cases, common Germanic words. The name Fehu is the same as Old English feoh and Old High German fihu, meaning “cattle” or “wealth.” The name Uruz is the same as Old English ur, meaning “aurochs.” The name Thurisaz is the same as Old English þyrs, meaning “giant” or “thirst.” The names of the runes are, in this sense, a part of the older Germanic vocabulary, and they have been a major source of information about the Germanic languages.
The Phonetic Values
The phonetic values of the runes are known from the surviving inscriptions. The runes are, in the first place, an alphabet — a system of phonetic signs — and each rune has a specific phonetic value. The phonetic values are, in most cases, the same as the first sound of the rune-name: Fehu is /f/, Uruz is /u/, Thurisaz is /θ/ (the “th” sound in “thing”), and so on.
The phonetic values of the runes are not exactly the same as the Latin alphabet. The runes represent the sounds of the older Germanic languages, and the sounds are, in some cases, different from the sounds of modern English. The rune Thurisaz (þ) represents the voiceless dental fricative /θ/, the sound in “thing” but not in “this.” The rune Ansuz (a) represents the vowel /a/, but the sound was, in some cases, closer to the back vowel /ɑ/. The rune Ehwaz (e) represents a vowel, but the exact quality of the vowel is debated.
The runes are read from right to left, left to right, or top to bottom, depending on the inscription. The direction of the reading is determined by the orientation of the runes, and the reading can be in any direction. The most common direction is left to right, but the right-to-left direction is also attested.
The Symbolic Meanings
In addition to the phonetic values, each rune has a symbolic meaning. The symbolic meanings are, in part, derived from the names of the runes: Fehu is the rune of wealth because the word fehu means “cattle” and cattle were the standard measure of wealth in the older Germanic societies. Uruz is the rune of primal strength because the word uruz means “aurochs,” the great wild ox of the older Germanic forests.
The symbolic meanings were systematized in the medieval Scandinavian sources, most importantly in the Hávamál of the Poetic Edda and in the Skáldskaparmál of the Prose Edda. According to the Hávamál (stanzas 138–145), Odin hung on the World Tree for nine nights, and during this time he learned the secrets of the runes. The image of Odin as the discoverer of the runes is one of the most important in the Norse tradition, and it has been the subject of modern interpretation.
The medieval Scandinavian sources describe the runes as having powers beyond the simple phonetic values. The runes are said to be able to heal, to protect, to curse, to raise the dead, to put the dead to rest, to put out fires, to put out storms, to speak, to make weapons sharper, and to make bonds stronger. The image of the runes as having magical powers is one of the most important in the Norse tradition, and it has been the subject of modern interpretation.
The Use of the Runes
The runes were used for a wide variety of purposes in the older Germanic societies. The most common use was for inscriptions on objects — weapons, jewelry, tools, amulets, and the standing stones of Scandinavia. The inscriptions are often simple, with a name, a dedication, or a brief statement. The most famous inscription is the Jelling stones of Denmark, raised by King Harald Bluetooth in memory of his parents.
The runes were also used for divination. The practice of casting runes — drawing a small number of runes from a bag, and reading them as a kind of omen — is described in the medieval Scandinavian sources, and the practice was widespread in the Viking Age. The image of the rune-caster is preserved in the Völuspá and in the Sigrdrífumál, both of the Poetic Edda.
The runes were also used for magic. The medieval Scandinavian sources describe the runes as having magical powers, and the most famous description is in the Hávamál (stanzas 138–145). According to the Hávamál, Odin, having learned the runes, was able to perform a wide variety of magical acts. The image of the rune-magician is one of the most famous in the Norse tradition, and it has been the subject of modern interpretation.
The Surviving Inscriptions
The surviving Elder Futhark inscriptions are, in total, more than 4,000 in number. The most famous are the Tune stone (in Norway), the Kylver stone (in Gotland), the Gummarp and Stenkvista runestones (in Sweden), the Vimose inscriptions (in Denmark), and the Britsum inscription (in the Netherlands). The inscriptions are the principal source of information about the Elder Futhark, and they have been a major focus of modern scholarship.
The most famous Elder Futhark inscription is the Kylver stone, found in 1903 in Kylver, Gotland. The stone, dating from around 400 CE, contains the entire 24-rune Elder Futhark, the earliest complete listing of the runes. The stone is a major source of information about the rune-row, and it is one of the most important runic inscriptions in the surviving corpus.
The most famous Viking-Age runic inscription is the Rök stone, found in 1962 in Rök, Sweden. The stone, raised in memory of the dead son of a chieftain, contains a long inscription in the Younger Futhark (the later, 16-rune version of the runic alphabet). The inscription is the longest known runic inscription, and it is a major source of information about the runic tradition of the Viking Age.
Reading the Runes in Practice
Reading the Elder Futhark in practice involves three steps: first, learning the rune-row and the names of the runes; second, learning the phonetic values of the runes; and third, learning the symbolic meanings of the runes. The three steps are not independent: the phonetic values are the foundation, the symbolic meanings are the application.
The most common way to begin is with a single rune, with a name, a phonetic value, and a symbolic meaning. The most common runes to begin with are Fehu, Uruz, Thurisaz, Ansuz, Raidho, Kenaz, Gebo, Wunjo, Hagalaz, Nauthiz, Isa, Jera, Eihwaz, Perthro, Algiz, Sowilo, Tiwaz, Berkano, Ehwaz, Mannaz, Laguz, Ingwaz, Dagaz, and Othala — the 24 runes of the Elder Futhark, in the standard order. The runes are then learned in groups of eight, the three ættir, in the order of the rune-row.
The next step is to learn the phonetic values, and to read simple inscriptions. The most common inscriptions are the names of the gods — Odin, Thor, Freyja, Tyr, Freyr, Heimdall, Baldr, Loki — and the names of the great heroes of the Norse tradition. The runes can also be used to write modern words, in which case the phonetic values are the primary concern.
The third step is to learn the symbolic meanings, and to use the runes in divination. The most common use of the runes in divination is to draw a small number of runes from a bag, and to read them as a kind of omen. The reading is a matter of interpretation, and the interpretation depends on the symbolic meanings of the runes.
The Runes in Modern Culture
The runes have had a major impact on modern popular culture. The image of the runes is used in modern fantasy, in modern art, in modern music, in modern politics, and in modern religion. The image of the runes is one of the most famous in the modern imagination, and it has drawn modern adaptation.
The most famous modern adaptation is in the Lord of the Rings of J. R. R. Tolkien, in which the runes are used to write the names of the dwarves and other figures. The image of the runes has also been used in the Thor films of the Marvel Cinematic Universe, in the God of War video game series, and in many other modern works of fiction.
The runes are also a major figure in modern Asatru and Heathenry. The runes are invoked in rituals, used for divination, and treated as objects of devotion. The reading appears in the medieval sources, and has been the subject of modern interpretation.
The Future of the Runes
The runes continue to be a focus of modern scholarship and modern popular interest. The image of the runes is one of the most famous in the modern imagination, and the runes continue to be used in modern Asatru, in modern fiction, and in modern art. The runes are, in this sense, one of the most enduring symbols of the Norse tradition, and they are likely to remain so for the foreseeable future.