What Was a Viking Longship?
Discover the design, construction, and use of the Viking longship, the warship that carried the Norsemen across the North Atlantic and down the rivers of Europe.
A Viking longship is a wooden, clinker-built ship, propelled by oars and a single square sail, designed for both war and oceanic travel, and used by the Norse peoples of Scandinavia between roughly 800 and 1100 CE. The longship is the most iconic Viking invention, the vessel that carried the Norse raiders, traders, and settlers across the North Sea, the North Atlantic, the Mediterranean, and the rivers of Eastern Europe. The image of the longship — the dragon-headed prow, the shallow draft, the symmetrical bow and stern — is the image of the Viking Age itself, and the archaeology of the longship is one of the most thoroughly studied in Scandinavian history.
The Clinker-Built Hull
The longship is built in the clinker style, also called lapstrake, in which the planks of the hull overlap each other along their edges. The technique is the opposite of the carvel style, in which the planks are laid edge-to-edge and the hull is smooth. The clinker style is older than the Viking Age: it is attested in ship burials in Norway from as early as the 4th century, and the technique was used in Scandinavia for many centuries before the Viking Age.
The hull is built from planks of oak, ash, or pine, fastened with iron rivets. The planks are usually about 2.5 to 3 cm thick, and the overlap is about 2 to 3 cm. The hull is flexible and strong, able to bend with the waves rather than resist them. The flexibility is one of the most distinctive features of the longship, and it is the key to the longship’s ability to navigate rough seas.
The clinker technique is also the source of the longship’s distinctive appearance. The overlapping planks give the hull a ribbed, scaled look, and the image of a longship under sail, with the ribbed hull cutting through the waves, is one of the most famous in Scandinavian art. The image is preserved in the 11th-century Bayeux Tapestry and in the many runestones and picture stones of Scandinavia that depict ships.
The Symmetrical Design
The longship is symmetrical, with the same shape at the bow and the stern. The two ends curve upward, and the central part of the hull is open, with the rowers seated on chests. The shape is sometimes called “double-ended,” and it allows the ship to reverse direction without turning.
The symmetrical design is, in part, a practical matter. The longship is built to be rowed in both directions, and the symmetrical design allows the rowers to use the same oar-handling technique in both directions. The design is also a defensive one: a longship in flight can be rowed backward, with the bow facing the enemy, and the defenders can fight without having to turn the ship.
The shape of the longship is, in addition, an aesthetic one. The curving bow and stern, the ribbed hull, the single square sail, the dragon-headed prow, the shield-rack on the sides — all of these are part of the Viking aesthetic, and the image of the longship is one of the most famous in Scandinavian art.
The Dragon-Head Prow
The most distinctive feature of the longship is the dragon-head prow, the carved figure of a dragon (or, in some cases, a serpent, a wolf, or another animal) that is mounted on the bow. The dragon-head is the symbol of the ship, and it is the most common image in Viking-Age art.
The dragon-head has a specific function. According to the Gylfaginning of the Prose Edda (chapter 49), the dragon-head is intended to frighten the spirits of the land, which would otherwise attack the ship. The custom of removing the dragon-head when approaching land is described in the Orkneyinga saga and in other medieval sources, and the practice matches the medieval Icelandic understanding of the dragon-head as a kind of magical weapon.
The dragon-head is also a status symbol. The most elaborate dragon-heads are reserved for the ships of kings and chieftains, and the dragon-head of a royal ship is a symbol of the king’s power. The image of the dragon-headed ship is preserved in the 11th-century Skuldelev ships found in Roskilde Fjord, Denmark, and in the many runestones and picture stones of Scandinavia.
The Rigging and the Sail
The longship is propelled by both oars and a single square sail. The oars are the principal means of propulsion in close quarters, in battle, and in calm weather. The sail is the principal means of propulsion in open water and in favorable winds.
The sail is a single, square sail, hung from a single mast. The mast is stepped amidships, and the sail is raised and lowered by a system of ropes and pulleys. The sail is made of wool, of linen, or of a wool-and-linen blend, and it is usually dyed in a single color (most often red, white, or blue). The sail is the principal means of harnessing the wind, and the longship is, in this sense, a true sailing vessel — not just a rowing vessel.
The rigging is, in addition, a sophisticated one. The ship is steered by a single rudder mounted on the starboard side (the word “starboard” comes from the Old Norse stýri, “steering side”). The rudder is a complex piece of wood, and the helmsman is one of the most important members of the crew.
The Oars and the Rowers
The oars are the principal means of propulsion in close quarters, and the longship is rowed by a crew of between 26 and 80 men, depending on the size of the ship. The oars are made of pine, and the oar-handling is a specialized skill. The rowers sit on chests that are placed amidships, and the chests are also used to store the warriors’ equipment.
The rowers are, in the medieval Scandinavian sources, a class of men. The word róðrarmaðr (“oarsman”) is used in the sagas, and the rowers are often the chieftain’s household warriors. The act of rowing is, in this sense, a martial skill, and the rowers are the basis of the Viking war machine.
The oars are also a status symbol. The most elaborate longships have oars with silver-inlaid handles, and the oar is a mark of the ship’s status. The image of the longship, with the rowers pulling in unison, is one of the most famous in Scandinavian art.
The Skuldelev Ships
The most important archaeological evidence for the longship is the Skuldelev ships, a group of five ships found in Roskilde Fjord, Denmark, in 1962. The ships are now on display in the Viking Ship Museum in Roskilde.
The Skuldelev 1 is a small ocean-going ship, 16 m long, built in western Norway around 1030 CE. The ship is a deep-sea vessel, with a single mast and a single square sail, capable of crossing the North Atlantic. The Skuldelev 2 is a long warship, 30 m long, built in Dublin around 1042 CE. The ship is the largest of the Skuldelev vessels, and it is a classic example of the Viking warship.
The Skuldelev 3 is a small, coastal ship, 14 m long, built around 1040 CE. The Skuldelev 5 is a small warship, 17.5 m long, built in southern Norway around 1030 CE. The Skuldelev 6 is a small fishing vessel, 11 m long, built in Denmark around 1030 CE. The five ships together give a comprehensive picture of the Viking shipbuilding tradition, from the small fishing vessel to the great warship.
The Oseberg Ship
The Oseberg ship is the most famous Viking ship, found in a burial mound in Vestfold, Norway, in 1904. The ship is 22 m long and 5 m wide, and it was built around 820 CE. The ship is a ceremonial vessel, used for the burial of two women of high standing, and it is one of the most elaborately decorated Viking ships.
The Oseberg ship is, in the surviving sources, a symbol of the Viking shipbuilding tradition. The prow is carved with intricate decorations, and the ship is fitted with a tent for the deceased. The ship is now on display in the Viking Ship Museum in Bygdøy, Oslo, and it is one of the most popular tourist attractions in Norway.
The Oseberg ship is also a source for the understanding of Viking shipbuilding. The ship is a clinker-built vessel, with sixteen pairs of oars, and it is a fine example of the Viking tradition. The ship is a powerful symbol of the Viking Age, and it has been the subject of modern interpretation since its discovery.
The Gokstad Ship
The Gokstad ship is another important Viking ship, found in a burial mound in Vestfold, Norway, in 1880. The ship is 23 m long and 5 m wide, and it was built around 890 CE. The ship is a warship, with sixteen pairs of oars, and it was used for the burial of a man of high standing.
The Gokstad ship is a more practical vessel than the Oseberg ship, and it is a fine example of the Viking warship. The ship is now on display in the Viking Ship Museum in Oslo, and it is a major source for the understanding of Viking shipbuilding.
The Gokstad ship was sailed across the North Atlantic in 1893, when a replica of the ship made the voyage from Norway to Chicago for the World’s Columbian Exposition. The voyage proved that the Viking ships were capable of crossing the Atlantic, and it has been a major source of evidence for the Viking voyages of discovery.
The Longship in Battle
The longship is, in the surviving sources, a warship. The image of the longship in battle is preserved in the sagas and in the chronicles of the medieval period. The most famous description of a longship in battle is in the Bayeux Tapestry, which depicts the Norman invasion of England in 1066.
The Bayeux Tapestry shows the Norman ships as long, narrow vessels with single square sails, dragon-head prows, and rows of oars. The image matches the archaeological evidence, and it is one of the most famous depictions of Viking ships in the historical record.
The longship is also depicted in the medieval Scandinavian sources. The sagas describe the longship as a vessel that can be rowed at great speed, that can be sailed in any weather, and that can be beached on any coast. In this picture, vessel that is uniquely suited to the Viking Age, and the longship is, in this sense, the symbol of the Viking age.
The Longship in the North Atlantic
The longship is the vessel that carried the Norse to the North Atlantic. The voyages of the Norse to Iceland, to Greenland, and to Vinland (in what is now North America) were all made in longships, and the image of the longship under sail in the North Atlantic is one of the most famous in the history of exploration.
The most famous longship voyage is the one made by Leif Erikson, who sailed from Greenland to Vinland around 1000 CE. The voyage is described in the Saga of the Greenlanders and in the Saga of Eiríkr the Red, and it is one of the earliest documented European voyages to North America.
The voyages of the Norse to the North Atlantic are made possible by the longship. The vessel is uniquely suited to the open ocean, and the Norse sailors were able to use the longship to cross the Atlantic in a way that no other European people of the time could. The reading has been treated in modern scholarship, and it has been a source of much of the modern popular interest in the longship.
The Longship in the Rivers
The longship is also the vessel that carried the Norse down the rivers of Eastern Europe. The Norse used the longship to sail down the Dnieper, the Volga, and the Don, and they established trade routes that connected Scandinavia with Byzantium and the Arab world.
The most famous description of a longship in the rivers is in the Younger Edda of Snorri Sturluson, which describes the Norse voyages to the East. The picture is of a longship sailing down a great river, the crew trading with the local peoples, and the longship as a symbol of the Norse presence in the East.
The longship is, in this sense, a vessel that is uniquely suited to the Norse world. It is a warship, a trading vessel, and a colonizing vessel, all at once. The image of the longship is one of the most famous in Scandinavian history, and it has been the subject of modern interpretation since the 19th century.
The Symbolism of the Longship
The longship is, in the surviving sources, a symbol of the Viking Age. The image of the longship under sail is the image of the Norse expansion, and the longship is, in this sense, the symbol of the Norse presence in Europe. The longship is, in addition, a symbol of the Norse world: the ship is, like the Norse world, a place of war, of trade, of travel, of exploration. In this world the Norse presence is felt across Europe, and the longship is the means by which that presence is established.
The longship has drawn modern Scandinavian identity. The image of the longship is used in modern Scandinavian art, in modern Scandinavian literature, and in modern Scandinavian politics. In this world the longship is the symbol of the Norse, and the Norse are the symbol of the longship.